Evaluation of the critical gaps in legislations and policies on animal healthcare in Ghana

¹Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana, ²Veterinary Services Directorate, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Bolgatanga, Ghana, ³Legal Unit, Civil Defence Service Corps Headquarters, Abuja, Nigeria, ⁴Veterinary Services Directorate, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Accra, Ghana

^&Corresponding author
Derrick Adu Asare, Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana

Introduction    

Veterinary medicine is one of the cornerstones of public health, agricultural productivity, and socio-economic development in many countries worldwide [1]. Veterinarians play a critical role in ensuring animal health and welfare, enhancing food safety, and controlling zoonotic diseases that pose significant risks to human populations [2,3]. Their efforts are vital for maintaining healthy livestock populations, which are essential for food security and the livelihoods of many individuals worldwide [4]. Effective veterinary practice is deeply rooted in robust policies and legislation that regulate professional conduct, govern animal health services, and facilitate public health interventions [5,6].

Ghana's veterinary sector operates within a complex framework of national laws and regulations designed to promote animal health, safeguard public health, and support trade in animal products [7]. These frameworks are essential for standardizing veterinary practices, enforcing biosecurity measures, and ensuring compliance with international obligations [7]. However, contemporary challenges such as emerging infectious diseases, antimicrobial resistance, and the impacts of globalization necessitate a continual evaluation and updating of these policies to maintain their relevance and effectiveness [7].

Despite the pivotal role of policy and legislative frameworks in guiding veterinary practice [8], there is no available comprehensive analysis examining these instruments within the Ghanaian context. Understanding the current landscape of veterinary policies and legislation is crucial for practitioners, policymakers, and stakeholders. It enables the identification of strengths and weaknesses, facilitates alignment with international best practices, and informs strategies to enhance the veterinary profession's capacity to address current and future challenges. This scoping review aimed to fill this gap by mapping the existing policies and legislative frameworks within the veterinary practice in Ghana. It sought to identify gaps or inconsistencies within these policies, compare Ghana's veterinary legislation with international standards, and discuss the implications for veterinary practitioners and animal health in Ghana. By providing a critical analysis, this review aspires to contribute to the need for empowerment of Ghanaian veterinarians and the revolutionization of animal care in Ghana.

Methods     

Study design: this study employed a scoping review methodology, which involved the systematic analysis of existing documents. These documents included, but were not limited to, national animal healthcare policies and laws, government publications and reports on animal health and welfare, legislation from international bodies or organizations influencing animal healthcare in Ghana, academic articles and literature on animal healthcare policies in Ghana, reports from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working in animal health in Ghana, and records from relevant veterinary and other institutions and authorities. This scoping review was conducted in accordance with the methodological framework proposed by Arksey and O’Malley [9] and further refined by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) guidelines for scoping reviews. The reporting of this review was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist to ensure methodological transparency and rigor.

Information sources and eligibility criteria: the sources of information included legal databases such as government websites, such as the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and Veterinary Services Directorate, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) website, and international organizations such as the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), from which 9 different legal documents which were related to veterinary practice in Ghana was obtained. Academic databases including PubMed and Google Scholar, along with grey literature from professional veterinary associations and NGOs, were also consulted, but no documents or literature were obtained. Inclusion criteria included policies, laws, regulations, and official guidelines related to veterinary practice in Ghana, available in English and published up to October 2024. Exclusion criteria included non-official documents, such as opinion pieces or unofficial guidelines, and policies not directly affecting veterinary practice.

Search strategy and selection of sources: a comprehensive search strategy was developed using keywords and Boolean operators. Examples of search terms included "Veterinary legislation Ghana," "Animal health laws Ghana," "Veterinary policy Ghana," and "Animal welfare regulations Ghana." Full texts of potentially relevant documents were retrieved and assessed against the inclusion criteria.

Data charting and data analysis: extracted data included the title of the policy or legislation, year of enactment or publication, issuing authority, key provisions relevant to veterinary practice, areas addressed (e.g., licensing, animal disease control), and identified gaps or inconsistencies. Data were analyzed thematically to identify common themes, gaps, and areas needing improvement. Findings were summarized in narrative form, supplemented by tabular presentation where appropriate.

Results     

The initial search yielded 9 documents. After thorough scrutiny, all 9 documents met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. The process of identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and inclusion of documents is presented in Figure 1. The included documents consisted of legislation, such as acts and laws passed by the Ghanaian Parliament; regulations, including statutory instruments providing details on implementing legislation; and policies and guidelines from government ministries and agencies. A summary of the included documents is presented in Table 1.

Description of the laws and policies

The Veterinary Surgeons Act (PNDCL 305C) serves as a comprehensive framework for regulating veterinary practice and governance in Ghana. Its primary focus is to ensure the highest standards in veterinary medicine through the establishment of the Veterinary Council of Ghana, which oversees the profession. The Act details the qualifications, registration processes, and professional standards for veterinary surgeons while also specifying the powers, responsibilities, and disciplinary measures associated with the practice. By defining these parameters, the Act seeks to maintain professionalism, ethics, and competence among veterinarians.

The Diseases of Animals Act serves as a comprehensive legislative framework aimed at consolidating and amending previous laws to ensure the prevention and control of infectious and contagious diseases among animals in Ghana. It empowers the Minister of Agriculture and veterinary authorities to take decisive actions to manage outbreaks, safeguard public health, and regulate activities related to animal disease prevention and control. The Act outlines the powers vested in veterinary authorities, the roles of veterinary guards, and the responsibilities of animal owners, while also addressing penalties and compensation measures.

The Public Health Act (Act 851) serves as a comprehensive legislative framework designed to protect and promote public health in Ghana. It covers diverse areas such as communicable diseases, vaccination, quarantine, vector control, environmental sanitation, tobacco control, food and drugs, and clinical trials. Veterinarians play a critical role under the Act, especially in disease prevention and control, reflecting the interconnectedness of human and animal health. The Act empowers health authorities, including veterinary officers, to take proactive and remedial measures against public health threats, ensuring the well-being of both humans and animals.

The National Food Safety Policy seeks to establish a resilient and coordinated food safety system in Ghana. It aims to protect consumer health, reduce the prevalence of foodborne diseases, and strengthen food safety governance across the food chain, from production to consumption. By addressing gaps in the current framework, the policy sets strategies to harmonize laws, enhance institutional capacity, and foster collaboration among key stakeholders to ensure a safer and more sustainable food supply.

The Meat Inspection Regulations (L.I. 2405) establish comprehensive guidelines for the inspection, regulation, and maintenance of quality standards for meat intended for human or animal consumption in Ghana. It addresses key aspects of the meat production process, including slaughter methods, inspection protocols, permits, and certification requirements. The regulations aim to ensure public health, animal welfare, and compliance with international meat hygiene standards. Veterinary officers, particularly those designated as inspectors, are pivotal in enforcing these regulations. The Pharmacy and Drugs Act establishes the control of all pharmaceuticals. The Food and Drugs Law, 1992 and the Pharmacy Act, 1994 provide the legal framework for the registration and control of pharmaceutical activities.

The Animals (Control of Importation) Act provides the foundational legal framework for controlling the importation of animals and related products into Ghana.

Policies provisions for veterinarians

The Veterinary Surgeons Act establishes veterinarians’ professional authority and governance. It grants registered veterinary surgeons the right to practice veterinary medicine and surgery, use the title "Veterinary Doctor," and prescribe and store restricted drugs within legal parameters. The Act mandates the establishment of the Veterinary Council of Ghana, which oversees professional standards and ensures veterinarians’ representation in governance. Veterinarians are further authorized to supervise temporary registrants and veterinary students, maintain professional conduct, and engage in public service roles requiring veterinary qualifications. This framework underscores their critical role in upholding national animal health systems and professional ethics.

The Diseases of Animals Act empowers veterinarians to control infectious and contagious diseases among animals. It authorizes them to inspect animals, conduct autopsies, enforce quarantines, and disinfect facilities. Veterinarians can also destroy infected animals and contaminated materials to prevent disease transmission. Veterinary guards, appointed under this Act, are granted the power to arrest offenders without warrants and assist in enforcing disease prevention measures. The Act also requires veterinarians to respond to disease notifications, conduct diagnostics, and implement disease control measures, including quarantine and disinfection protocols.

The Public Health Act positions veterinarians as integral to managing zoonotic and communicable diseases. They are authorized to inspect animals, perform post-mortem examinations, disinfect premises, and oversee the destruction of animals likely to transmit diseases. Veterinarians also play a critical role in vector control, including measures to eliminate disease-carrying vectors such as mosquitoes. Additionally, they act as public vaccinators, enforce vaccination mandates, and issue certificates. Their responsibilities extend to public health education on zoonotic diseases and collaboration with other stakeholders to ensure effective disease prevention and containment.

The National Food Safety Policy underscores veterinarians’ central role in ensuring food safety across the production and consumption continuum. They are responsible for issuing health certifications for animal products, controlling the movement of animals during disease outbreaks, and declaring infected areas. Veterinarians are also mandated to contribute to foodborne disease surveillance, educate stakeholders in the animal-based food value chain, and collaborate with other agencies to implement food safety regulations. Their responsibilities include monitoring foodborne risks, enforcing compliance with safety regulations, and promoting public awareness. This policy emphasizes integrating food safety measures into broader agricultural and public health programs.

The Meat Inspection Regulations empower veterinarians to uphold meat safety and quality standards. They are tasked with conducting ante-mortem and post-mortem inspections to determine the fitness of animals and carcasses for consumption. In emergencies, veterinarians oversee the disposal of unfit carcasses and ensure condemned meat is securely handled to prevent contamination. Additional mandates include ensuring humane slaughter practices, supervising hygiene in slaughter facilities, conducting laboratory analyses, and branding meat based on fitness for consumption. These regulations ensure compliance with national and international meat hygiene standards, safeguarding public health.

The Food and Drugs Law ensures that only registered drugs may be sold, and only registered inspection officers appointed under the Pharmacy Act can make regular inspections of premises to establish whether the dispensing operations of the Act, and the granting and renewal of licences, are being satisfied in all respects. The scientific requirements for registration include data on quality, clinical efficacy and safety. In addition, the registration holder must keep accurate records of drug distribution, which must be available for inspection. The Veterinary Services Department (VSD) issues permits for the importation and sale of all categories of veterinary drugs. Sales and distribution of veterinary products (vaccines, medicines and diagnostics) are conducted by the private sector. However, vaccine sales and distribution are still controlled by the VSD.

The Animals (Control of Importation) Act empowers the Minister to prohibit the importation of specific animals to prevent disease introduction. The Act also allows the veterinary inspector, with the consent of the Director of Veterinary Services, to seize an animal imported in contravention of this Act, and also slaughter unlawfully imported animals, ensuring that public health is safeguarded against potential zoonotic diseases. In addition, Where the importer of an animal in respect of which an examination has been conducted has, after demand made, refused or neglected to pay the prescribed fee and any other expenses and to remove the animal, the Director of Veterinary Services may cause the animal to be sold by public auction, and shall, after deducting the moneys due in respect of the fee and any other expenses, pay the balance to the importer of the animal.

Gaps identified

The review revealed significant gaps in Ghana's veterinary legislative frameworks that limit their effectiveness. The Veterinary Surgeons Act does not provide emergency powers for veterinarians during disease outbreaks, delaying critical interventions. Additionally, there is no funding support for veterinary research or incentives for practitioners in underserved areas. The Act also lacks provisions mandating public health education, limiting efforts to raise awareness about zoonotic diseases. It further overlooks the integration of modern technologies such as telemedicine and artificial intelligence, essential for advancing veterinary services.

The Diseases of Animals Act, while granting veterinarians broad powers for disease control, lacks explicit guidelines for coordinating emergency responses with public health agencies, particularly for zoonotic diseases. Public education on animal health and zoonotic risks is not mandated, and there is insufficient emphasis on modern disease surveillance technologies like digital tracking systems. Funding and incentives to support rural veterinary services are also absent.

Under the Public Health Act, veterinarians' roles in public education about zoonotic diseases are underemphasized, and clear emergency protocols for coordination with other health agencies are missing. The lack of funding mechanisms and incentives for rural services, along with the absence of digital tools like electronic health records, further constrains disease management and veterinary practice. The law is skewed to human health, with less emphasis on the role of veterinarians in zoonoses and food safety

The National Food Safety Policy lacks dedicated funding provisions to strengthen veterinary infrastructure and suffers from fragmented institutional roles, limiting coordinated action. It inadequately highlights veterinarians' roles in addressing zoonotic diseases and does not integrate modern technologies for disease tracking, which hinders effective food safety oversight. The Meat Inspection Regulations, 2020 fail to emphasize modern technological tools for inspections, such as real-time disease tracking systems, and lack public education mandates on meat safety. Additionally, the absence of funding for slaughter facilities and overlapping roles between veterinarians and inspectors create inefficiencies.

Ghana's legislative frameworks for veterinary practice also exhibit significant gaps in the control of veterinary drugs, especially regarding the power over importation and exportation, which had been ceded to the Ghana Drug Enforcement Agency. Existing laws, such as the Veterinary Surgeons Act and the Public Health Act, lack comprehensive provisions for the registration, importation, distribution, prescription, and usage of veterinary medicines.

Under the Pharmacy and Drugs Act, Food and Drugs Law, and the Pharmacy Act, the Pharmacy Board is legally responsible for the registration of human and veterinary products (drugs). However, veterinarians are not well represented on the Board. This has been shown by OIE Gap Analysis reports as a weak arrangement, because the registration of some veterinary products such as vaccines is specialized work requiring specialized training. Furthermore, Veterinarians are mainly representatives of multi-national companies. Farmers' organizations, NGOs, and Government officials often possess and distribute veterinary products. Regarding the Animals (Control of Importation) Act, 1952, veterinarians are limited only to seizure and slaughter of unlawfully imported animals or those with contagious diseases of public health importance. While veterinary inspectors are empowered to seize and slaughter unlawfully imported animals, the Act lacks robust mechanisms for ensuring compliance among importers. This gap can result in unregulated imports and inadequate responses to violations, contrasting with more stringent enforcement seen in other countries.

Discussion     

This review focused on examining the legislative frameworks governing veterinary practice in Ghana, with particular attention to their effectiveness in regulating veterinary services, addressing public and animal health challenges, and ensuring food safety. Ghana’s legislative framework for veterinary practice encompasses several key policies aimed at regulating veterinary services, ensuring public and animal health, and safeguarding food safety. These include the Veterinary Surgeons Act, the Diseases of Animals Act, the Public Health Act, the National Food Safety Policy, and the Meat Inspection Regulations. Collectively, these laws establish the roles, responsibilities, and governance mechanisms necessary for effective veterinary service delivery. However, despite their breadth, critical gaps remain, limiting their ability to address contemporary challenges in animal and public health.

One significant gap across the legislative framework is the lack of explicit emergency powers for veterinarians during disease outbreaks. The Veterinary Surgeons Act grants veterinarians the professional authority needed but does not provide mechanisms to enable rapid interventions during emergencies. The Diseases of Animals Act authorizes disease control measures, such as quarantine and disinfection, yet fails to outline protocols for inter-agency collaboration, particularly in managing zoonotic spillovers with direct human health implications. International frameworks, such as the European Union’s Animal Health Law, provide comprehensive emergency powers and mandate intersectoral coordination, ensuring swift responses to animal and zoonotic disease outbreaks [10]. Ghana’s absence of such provisions places its veterinary services at a disadvantage during crises, delaying critical containment efforts.

Another critical limitation is the lack of dedicated funding mechanisms and financial incentives to support veterinary services, particularly in underserved rural areas. While the Veterinary Surgeons Act establishes the Veterinary Council of Ghana to oversee professional standards, it does not address resource allocation to enhance veterinary infrastructure or incentivize rural practitioners. Similarly, the Diseases of Animals Act and the National Food Safety Policy do not include funding provisions for disease surveillance and response systems. In contrast, international models like the United States’ National Veterinary Accreditation Program allocate resources specifically for underserved regions, ensuring equitable access to veterinary services [11]. This gap exacerbates disparities in animal health services in Ghana, particularly in livestock-dependent communities, where inadequate veterinary care can result in significant economic and public health consequences [12].

Public education, an essential component of zoonotic disease prevention, is insufficiently emphasized across Ghana’s veterinary legislation. While the Public Health Act and the Diseases of Animals Act task veterinarians with disease prevention responsibilities, neither mandates proactive public awareness campaigns. The National Food Safety Policy includes provisions for stakeholder education, but these are limited to food safety rather than broader zoonotic risks. Internationally, frameworks underpinned by the One Health approach, such as those in the United States and European Union, prioritize community engagement through public education as a cornerstone of disease prevention [13]. Ghana’s fragmented approach to public health education limits community participation in preventive measures, potentially increasing zoonotic disease transmission risks. There is a need for legal backing for One Health implementation

The integration of modern technologies in veterinary practice is notably absent from Ghana’s legislative frameworks. While the Veterinary Surgeons Act and Meat Inspection Regulations provide a basis for professional oversight and food safety enforcement, they lack mandates for adopting digital surveillance tools, telemedicine, or electronic health records. These technologies have become essential for real-time disease tracking and efficient management of animal health systems globally [14-16]. For example, the European Union’s Animal Health Law explicitly incorporates the use of digital technologies for disease surveillance and reporting, enabling rapid responses to emerging threats [17]. Ghana’s omission of such provisions in the policies and legislation limits its capacity to modernize veterinary services and effectively address complex health challenges.

Under the Pharmacy and Drugs Act, veterinarians are inadequately represented on the Pharmacy Board, which is responsible for registering both human and veterinary products. This lack of representation leads to a disconnect between veterinary needs and regulatory decisions, as the registration of specialized veterinary products such as vaccines requires expertise that is often lacking among board members. In contrast, countries like South Africa ensure that veterinarians are actively involved in the regulatory process, enhancing the quality and safety of veterinary medicines. Furthermore, many veterinarians on the board represent multinational companies rather than local interests, which can exacerbate issues related to counterfeit products entering the market from sources like Cameroon, China, and India. The insufficient representation of veterinarians on regulatory boards hampers effective oversight of veterinary drug quality and safety. This gap can result in an influx of counterfeit or substandard products, posing significant risks to animal health and public safety. Moreover, the reliance on non-professional actors for drug distribution in Ghana further complicates access to safe veterinary medicines, leading to inappropriate use and potential adverse health outcomes for animals. To address these gaps, it is essential to reform the Pharmacy Board structure to include more veterinarians with specialized training in drug regulation. Establishing clear guidelines for the registration process of veterinary products that prioritize local needs will enhance access to safe and effective medications while reducing counterfeit risks.

The Animals (Control of Importation) Act restricts veterinarians' roles primarily to seizing and slaughtering unlawfully imported animals or those with contagious diseases. While this empowers veterinarians to act against public health threats, it lacks robust mechanisms for ensuring compliance among importers. Many countries have established stricter enforcement protocols that involve coordinated efforts between veterinary services and customs authorities to prevent illegal imports effectively, such as in Nigeria, where veterinary drug control is under the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) [18]. The limited enforcement capabilities within the Act can lead to unregulated imports of animals that may carry diseases, compromising both animal health and public safety. The absence of comprehensive compliance mechanisms diminishes veterinarians' ability to respond effectively to violations, resulting in increased risks of disease outbreaks. Strengthening the Animals (Control of Importation) Act by incorporating explicit compliance mechanisms and enhancing collaboration between veterinary services and customs authorities will improve enforcement capabilities. Implementing training programs for inspectors on disease recognition and reporting will further bolster efforts to control animal imports effectively.

Despite these gaps, there are areas where existing policies partially address deficiencies in others. For instance, the National Food Safety Policy emphasizes stakeholder training and compliance with food safety regulations, partially compensating for the lack of public education mandates in the Veterinary Surgeons Act and Public Health Act. Similarly, the enforcement powers granted under the Diseases of Animals Act complement the collaborative mandates of the Public Health Act, albeit without comprehensive inter-agency protocols. These overlaps highlight opportunities for greater harmonization across policies to reduce inefficiencies and strengthen the legislative framework.

Comparing Ghana’s veterinary legislation to international standards reveals both alignment and areas for improvement. The frameworks align with global norms by empowering veterinarians to conduct inspections, enforce quarantines, and oversee disease control measures. However, the majority of the legislation is outdated, as previously highlighted by the World Organization for Animal Health [7], and the laws also diverge significantly in critical areas such as emergency response, funding mechanisms, public education, and technological integration. Internationally, the One Health approach has been instrumental in addressing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. Ghana’s limited adoption of these principles restricts its ability to effectively manage zoonotic risks and other public health challenges [7].

This review is limited by the nature of the available evidence, which consisted exclusively of publicly accessible legislative and policy documents. While these documents provide formal regulatory frameworks, they may not fully reflect the practical implementation, enforcement challenges, or informal regulatory mechanisms operating within Ghana’s veterinary system. Additionally, some legislative instruments may have undergone internal amendments or administrative updates not publicly documented at the time of review. The analysis was therefore confined to the content explicitly stated within the identified policy texts. As a scoping review, this study did not include a formal critical appraisal or risk-of-bias assessment of the included documents, as the objective was to map and synthesize existing legislative frameworks rather than evaluate their methodological quality. Furthermore, although efforts were made to ensure systematic identification and selection of documents, the interpretation of legislative gaps involved thematic synthesis, which may introduce a degree of subjective judgment.

Conclusion     

In conclusion, Ghana's legislative framework for veterinary practice demonstrates significant strengths in its foundational provisions for regulating services, safeguarding public health, and ensuring food safety. However, critical gaps remain, including the absence of explicit emergency powers, insufficient funding mechanisms, limited public education mandates, and inadequate integration of modern technologies. These shortcomings, alongside fragmented policy coordination, impede the effectiveness of veterinary services in addressing contemporary challenges.

Recommendations

To address these gaps, Ghana’s veterinary legislation requires targeted reforms. Granting veterinarians explicit emergency disease response powers, establishing funding mechanisms to support rural services, and mandating public education campaigns on zoonotic diseases are critical steps. Incorporating modern technologies into veterinary practice would enhance disease surveillance and service efficiency in Ghana. The adoption of mobile-based reporting systems such as EMA-i+ developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization would enable real-time outbreak reporting, while the use of GIS tools like QGIS would support spatial mapping of disease hotspots. Portable molecular diagnostic platforms, including field PCR systems, would improve rapid confirmation of priority diseases, and electronic livestock identification systems using RFID ear tags would strengthen traceability and movement control. Harmonizing existing policies to reduce redundancies and align with international standards outlined by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) would further strengthen Ghana’s capacity to prevent, detect, and respond effectively to emerging animal health threats. In furtherance, aligning Ghana’s veterinary legislation with international standards as enshrined using a well-implemented One Health approach, and addressing these gaps through targeted reforms will be pivotal in enhancing veterinary service delivery and strengthening the country’s capacity to manage animal and public health risks effectively in the years to come.

Competing interests     

All authors declare no competing interests.

Authors' contributions     

Derrick Adu Asare conceptualized the study, collected the data, analysed the data, conducted the literature review, and drafted the manuscript. Benjamin Obukowho Emikpe aided in the conceptualisation, provided supervision, assisted in data collection, analysis, and contributed to manuscript revisions. Albert Agyapong Tweneboah provided insights on legislative frameworks and contributed to the data collection. Francis Mensah Vilas contributed to data collection and conducted thematic analysis of policies. Ufuoma Iyanuoluwa Emikpe supported with data synthesis and contributed to the methodology section. Emmanuel Allegye-Cudjoe offered expertise on veterinary practices and assisted in finalizing the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of this manuscript.

Table and figure     

Table 1: nature of documents reviewed

Figure 1: PRISMA-ScR flow diagram showing the selection process of legislative and policy documents

References