Psychological dimensions of the marriage readiness index: a cross-sectional study for premarital mental health prevention

¹Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia, ²Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, Population Studies and Health Promotion, Public Health Faculty, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia, ³Faculty of Nursing, Kendedes Health School, Malang, East Java, Indonesia, ⁴Faculty Midwifery, Kendedes Health School, Malang, East Java, Indonesia

^&Corresponding author
Eka Yuni Indah Nurmala, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia

Introduction    

Marriage continues to be a central social institution across societies, shaping family structures and influencing public health outcomes. In recent years, the global rise in divorce rates has drawn increasing attention to the psychological and social consequences of marital instability, including elevated risks of stress, anxiety, and depression. Psychological preparedness has been identified as a critical determinant of marital quality, encompassing emotional maturity, motivation, interpersonal competence, and the capacity to balance multiple roles [1,2]. The biopsychosocial model provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how psychological, biological, and social factors interact in shaping marriage readiness [3]. Gender differences in mental health indicate that women experience problems at a higher rate than men, particularly during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Recent studies confirm that perinatal mental disorders remain highly prevalent: approximately 10-15% of pregnant women and 13-20% of postpartum women suffer from depression or anxiety, with even higher rates reported in low and middle-income countries [4,5]. These conditions are often underdiagnosed and untreated, posing significant risks to maternal well-being, infant development, and family resilience. Although maternal mental health is not the primary endpoint of this study, it represents a critical outcome relevance inadequate premarital preparation, which may exacerbate psychological distress during pregnancy and postpartum, thereby undermining marital quality and family stability. Contemporary research further demonstrates that marital circumstances strongly influence mental health outcomes. Divorce is associated with elevated risks of depression and anxiety, early marriage increases vulnerability to psychological distress, and marital dissatisfaction predicts the persistence and severity of mental illness [4,6]. Gender differences in premarital anxiety also emerge as a significant concern, with evidence from Tasikmalaya, Indonesia indicating that women preparing for marriage report higher levels of severe anxiety and panic compared to men [7].

Recent studies in South and Southeast Asia emphasize that couples entering marriage without adequate preparation are more vulnerable to psychological distress and relational conflicts compared to those who are sufficiently prepared. Indicators such as perceived readiness, marital expectations, emotional well-being, and interpersonal skills have been consistently identified as predictors of marital satisfaction and stability, and these are strongly shaped by gender differences that influence relational dynamics [8-10]. However, existing instruments like the marriage readiness scale and the preparation for marriage questionnaire were largely developed in western contexts and may not adequately capture the cultural and social realities of Indonesian society, where norms surrounding family roles, gender expectations, and socio-economic conditions differ significantly. These indicators are also influenced by gender differences, which shape expectations and relational dynamics. However, existing tools, including the marriage readiness scale and the preparation for marriage questionnaire, were developed in western contexts and may not fully capture the cultural and social realities of Indonesian society [11,12].

In Indonesia, government initiatives such as Elektronik Siap Nikah dan Siap Hamil (Elsimil) and Bimbingan Perkawinan (Bimwin) have been introduced to strengthen premarital preparation. However, their implementation remains fragmented and lacks institutional integration [13]. The family readiness Index developed by Badan Kependudukan dan Keluarga Berencana Nasional (BKKBN) encompasses multiple dimensions, yet evidence shows that many young adults aged 20-24 remain unprepared, especially in emotional and social domains [9]. These gaps intersect with national priorities in mental health and family resilience, and align with global public health goals to reduce the preventable burden of mental health problems, while advancing SDGs 3 (Good Health and Well-Being) and SDGs 5 (gender equality). The absence of a standardized, culturally adapted, and psychologically grounded marriage readiness index poses a significant challenge for preventive public health strategies. A validated instrument that integrates biopsychosocial and sociodemographic indicators could function as an early screening tool to identify risks of marital conflict and mental health disorders, while simultaneously supporting evidence-based interventions and policy development [14,15]. This study aims to develop and validate a psychology-based marriage readiness index using a biopsychosocial approach. By incorporating dimensions such as beliefs, emotional maturity, self-esteem, interpersonal skills, and marital motives, the index is expected to strengthen preventive premarital programs, improve marital quality, and contribute to sustainable mental health development in Indonesia.

Methods     

Study design and setting: this study employed a quantitative observational design with a cross-sectional approach. The cross-sectional design was chosen because it allows the simultaneous measurement of multiple biopsychosocial factors in prospective brides and grooms at a single point in time. This design is particularly suitable for constructing a composite index, as it captures the psychological aspects of marriage readiness without requiring longitudinal follow-up. The approach also ensures efficiency in data collection and provides a snapshot of the current premarital conditions in the study population. The research was conducted at several offices of religious affairs (Kantor Urusan Agama (KUA) in Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia. Malang Regency was selected purposively because it recorded the highest marriage and divorce rates in East Java in 2023, highlighting the urgent need for premarital readiness interventions [16]. The study was carried out over a period of three months, ensuring adequate time for sampling across KUAs with both high and low marriage volumes. This setting provided a diverse representation of sociodemographic backgrounds, strengthening the generalizability of the findings.

Population: the study population consisted of prospective brides and grooms registered at the offices of religious Affairs (Kantor Urusan Agama (KUA)) in Malang Regency, Indonesia.

Sample size: sample size determination followed the rule of thumb for factor analysis, requiring a minimum of 280 respondents to ensure statistical robustness for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The final sample was composed of 92 respondents from KUA Pakisaji, 102 respondents from KUA Singosari, 44 respondents from KUA Bululawang, and 42 respondents from KUA Dau, with an equal distribution between male (n = 140) and female (n = 140). The selection of these KUA was based on stratification into high and low marriage-rate groups to capture variability in demographic and socio-cultural contexts. Kantor Urusan Agama (KUA) Singosari and KUA Pakisaji represented areas with relatively high marriage registration rates, while KUA Bululawang and KUA Dau reflected lower registration rates. This stratification ensured that the sample was not skewed toward one type of community, thereby enhancing representativeness and allowing findings to be generalized across diverse marriage rate settings in Malang Regency. The inclusion criteria comprised couples who were marrying for the first time, those who formally registered their marriage with the office of religious affairs (KUA), and couples aged 19 years or older. The exclusion criterion was applied to prospective couples in which the bride was already pregnant at the time of marriage registration.

Sampling technique: a multistage random sampling method was applied. First, KUA were stratified into high and low marriage-rate groups. From each stratum, KUA were randomly selected. Within each selected KUA, respondents were sampled proportionally from registration lists, and final participants were selected through randomization. This procedure minimized selection bias and enhanced representativeness.

Variables: a composite index or indicator is a multidimensional measure that combines several individual indicators. In this study, there were two types of variables: latent constructs and manifest variables. Latent variables or constructs are variables that cannot be measured directly but are reflected through their underlying indicators. Manifest or observable variables are those that can be directly observed or measured. In this study, the latent variable was psychological readiness, while the manifest indicators included beliefs, role readiness, emotional maturity, problem-solving skills, moral readiness, self-esteem, interpersonal skills, and marital motives.

Data collection tools and procedures: a structured questionnaire was developed, integrating items from internationally validated tools and culturally adapting them to the Indonesian context. Key instruments included the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale [17], criteria for marriage readiness questionnaire [18]. Item validity was assessed using Pearson´s correlation coefficient, with a threshold of r ≥ 0.30 considered acceptable. This criterion is consistent with established psychometric standards, where item-total correlations of 0.30-0.40 are widely recognized as sufficient for scale development and item analysis [19].

Statistical analysis: missing data were assessed before analysis. The overall proportion of missing responses was low (<5% across variables). For the primary analyses, we applied a complete-case approach (listwise deletion), excluding participants with missing values for the variables relevant to each test. This method was chosen to maintain analytic consistency and because the extent of missingness was minimal. Sensitivity checks confirmed that the exclusion of these cases did not materially alter the findings. The number of participants included in each analysis is reported in the corresponding tables. The collected data were presented in univariate frequency tables and analyzed using multivariate techniques, specifically confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), to generate composite variables and derive a psychological marriage readiness index score. Confirmatory factor analysis is a statistical method used to assess how well the measured variables represent the constructs or factors that have been theoretically established. In CFA, there are two types of variables: latent variables and indicator variables. Latent variables are those that cannot be measured directly but are formed and represented by other measurable variables, known as indicator variables. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was selected because it allows testing whether observed indicators adequately represent latent constructs. Analyses were conducted using statistical software SmartPLS 4, ensuring methodological rigor and reproducibility [20].

Ethical approval: this study received ethical approval from the Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga (approval number: 114/EA/KEPK/2025).

Results     

Sociodemographic characteristics: Table 1 presents sociodemographic characteristics of study participants, recruited from the prospective brides and grooms registered at four Religious Affairs Offices in Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia, from May to July 2025 (N=280). The sample was equally divided between male (n = 140) and female (n = 140). Data are stratified by sex (male and female) and include age, education level, occupational status, income, and financial independence. Frequencies and percentages are reported for each category, with p-values indicating statistical significance of gender differences. The table highlights sociodemographic variations relevant to marriage readiness, providing context for interpreting psychological preparedness and its role in premarital health strategies. Women were more likely to marry at a younger age, with 31 respondents (22.1%) aged 19-20 years compared to only 9 men (6.4%), while the majority of men (126; 90.0%) married between 21-35 years. Educational attainment showed that women had slightly higher levels, with 88 (62.9%) completing senior high school compared to 77 men (55.0%), whereas men were more represented at the elementary level (24; 17.1%) than women (9; 6.4%).

Occupational status highlighted stark contrasts: nearly all men (139; 99.3%) reported being employed, while the majority of women (107; 76.4%) were not engaged in formal work. This disparity was reflected in income distribution, where men were more likely to earn above the minimum wage (40; 28.6%) compared to women (25; 17.9%), while a considerable proportion of women (33; 23.6%) reported no income. Financial independence further underscored these differences, with men overwhelmingly identifying as financially independent (122; 87.1%) compared to women (92; 65.7%), leaving 48 women (34.3%) dependent on parents or partners. These findings illustrate the persistence of traditional gender roles within Indonesian society, where men are expected to assume economic responsibility while women often enter marriage at younger ages with limited financial autonomy. Such disparities have implications for marriage readiness, as economic independence and maturity may influence psychological preparedness. The results emphasize the need for premarital interventions that are gender-sensitive, particularly programs that empower women economically and strengthen relational competencies for both sexes.

The relationship of gender to marriage readiness in the psychological dimensions: Table 2 presents the psychological dimension indicators that revealed both similarities and significant differences between men and women. Eight psychological dimensions were assessed: belief, role readiness, emotional maturity, problem-solving skills, moral readiness, self-esteem, interpersonal skills, and marital motives. Frequencies and percentages are reported for each category (good, fair, poor), with p-values indicating statistically significant gender differences. In terms of belief, women demonstrated stronger conviction, with 92.9% categorized as “good” compared to 83.6% of men (p = 0.025). This suggests that women may internalize cultural and religious values more deeply, shaping their orientation toward marriage. Role readiness showed no significant difference, with nearly equal proportions of men (85.7%) and women (85.0%) reporting high readiness. This indicates that both sexes perceive themselves as prepared to assume marital responsibilities, reflecting shared expectations within the sociocultural context.

Emotional maturity displayed a notable gender gap (p = 0.003). Men were more likely to be categorized as “good” (47.9%) compared to women (30.7%), while women more frequently fell into the “fair” category (65.0%). This pattern suggests that men may exhibit greater emotional stability, whereas women may require additional support in regulating emotions and managing marital stressors. Self-esteem also differed significantly (p = 0.024), with men reporting higher levels (69.3%) than women (57.1%). Women´s greater representation in the “fair” category (42.9%) highlights potential vulnerabilities in confidence and self-worth, which could influence their psychological preparedness for marriage. Other dimensions, including problem-solving skills, moral readiness, interpersonal skills, and marital motives, did not show statistically significant differences. For example, interpersonal skills were rated “good” among 70.7% of men and 73.6% of women, while marital motives were similarly distributed (72.9% vs. 75.0%). These findings suggest that both sexes share comparable strengths in relational competencies, moral orientation, and motivation to marry. Overall, the findings suggest that while both sexes share comparable readiness in role, morality, interpersonal skills, and marital motives, gender differences are evident in belief, emotional maturity, and self-esteem. Men appear to demonstrate greater emotional stability and confidence, whereas women show stronger belief systems. These variations highlight the multidimensional nature of marriage readiness and underscore the importance of gender-sensitive approaches in premarital interventions, particularly in strengthening women´s emotional maturity and self-esteem while leveraging their strong belief orientation.

Validation of psychological dimensions in the marriage readiness index: to determine the index results, a multivariate analysis was conducted using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to generate composite variables and derive a psychological index score for marriage readiness, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 presents a path diagram illustrating the structural relationships between a latent construct labeled psychological and eight observed psychological indicators: belief, role readiness, emotional maturity, problem-solving skills, morality readiness, self-esteem, interpersonal skills, and marital motives. Each indicator is represented by a blue circle and is connected to the central latent variable via directional arrows. The numerical values on each arrow denote standardized factor loadings, accompanied by p-values indicating statistical significance. The standardized estimates and significance values for all indicators are presented in Table 3. All indicators across the eight latent variables demonstrated statistically significant factor loadings (p < 0.001), confirming their relevance in representing their respective constructs. These results collectively indicate that all eight dimensions make significant contributions to the construct of psychological readiness for marriage, thereby supporting the validity of the marriage readiness index developed in this study. The results of the model testing, based on Figure 1 and described in Table 3, indicate that all indicators significantly contribute to shaping the dimensions of psychological readiness for marriage. Accordingly, the calculated scores for the psychological readiness dimensions are as follows:

Table 3 presents the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), indicating that all eight latent variables were statistically significant contributors to the construct of psychological readiness for marriage (p < 0.001). Standardized estimates ranged from 0.619 to 0.807, confirming the validity and reliability of each psychological construct. The strongest loading was observed for morality readiness (0.807), indicating that ethical orientation and adherence to moral values are the most central dimensions of marriage readiness in this population. Similarly, marital motives (0.799) and interpersonal skills (0.775) showed high factor loadings, underscoring the importance of relational competencies and intrinsic motivation in shaping readiness for marriage. Self-esteem (0.755) and belief (0.729) also contributed strongly, reflecting the role of confidence and conviction in sustaining marital commitment. Meanwhile, role readiness (0.722) demonstrated solid significance, suggesting that perceptions of responsibility and preparedness for marital roles are integral to the construct. The comparatively lower loadings for emotional maturity (0.622) and problem-solving skills (0.619), though still significant, suggest that these dimensions function as supportive rather than primary factors in the overall model. Taken together, the CFA results confirm that marriage readiness is a multidimensional construct, with morality, motives, and interpersonal skills forming the core, while emotional maturity and problem-solving act as complementary dimensions. These findings provide empirical support for the development of a culturally adapted marriage readiness index, ensuring that interventions and premarital programs address both central and supportive psychological domains.

Discussion     

This study confirms that psychological readiness is a multidimensional construct essential for marital quality and resilience. All eight psychological dimensions beliefs, role readiness, emotional maturity, problem solving skills, moral readiness, self-esteem, interpersonal skills, and marital motives contributed significantly to the marriage readiness index. Among these, moral readiness, marital motives, and interpersonal skills emerged as the strongest predictors, highlighting the importance of ethical orientation, intrinsic motivation, and relational competence in sustaining marital stability. Gender differences were evident in emotional maturity and self-esteem, with men reporting higher levels of confidence and emotional stability, while women demonstrated stronger belief orientation. These findings emphasize the need for gender-sensitive premarital interventions that strengthen women´s emotional maturity and self-esteem while leveraging their strong moral and belief systems.

Our findings are consistent with recent studies in Asia and the Middle East. Osman et al. (2022) reported that low marital satisfaction and exposure to spousal violence were significant predictors of depression among married Egyptian women, underscoring the role of psychological preparedness in mitigating mental health risks [8]. Khamidullina et al. (2025) and Qin et al. (2025) highlighted the high prevalence of postpartum depression and anxiety, particularly in low and middle-income countries, linking inadequate premarital preparation to maternal mental health vulnerabilities [4,5]. In Indonesia, Murniati et al. (2021) found that adolescents aged 20-24 were largely unprepared for marriage, especially in emotional and financial domains, supporting our findings on the importance of readiness dimensions [9]. Yeung & Jones et al. (2023) further emphasized that changing marriage patterns in Asia, including rising divorce and delayed marriage, require culturally adapted tools to assess readiness [10]. Belief readiness strengthens commitment by embedding cultural and religious values into marital expectations [21]. Role readiness ensures couples are prepared to balance responsibilities as spouses, parents, and workers in diverse social contexts [22]. Emotional maturity enables individuals to regulate stress and reduce premarital anxiety, particularly among women [23]. Problem-solving skills enhance conflict resolution and contribute to long-term marital satisfaction [24,25]. Moral readiness provides ethical orientation and resilience against relational stressors [5]. Self-esteem supports confidence in sustaining romantic relationships and reduces vulnerability to depression [8]. Interpersonal skills foster intimacy and communication, which are central to marital stability [24]. Marital motives, when intrinsic and clear, strengthen long-term commitment and reduce risks of dissatisfaction [26].

Gender differences in premarital anxiety have also been documented. Rismawan et al. (2024) reported that women preparing for marriage often experience higher levels of anxiety compared to men [7]. Zhang et al. (2023) demonstrated that psychosocial pathways to depression and anxiety differ by gender, reinforcing the need for sex-specific interventions [27]. Wider et al. (2025) found that intimacy and interpersonal skills are strong predictors of marital satisfaction, aligning with our results that interpersonal skills are central to marriage readiness [24]. Marriage readiness encompasses emotional maturity, motivation, and interpersonal competence. Individuals with psychological readiness are more capable of building healthy relationships, managing conflict, and sustaining long-term commitment [28-30].

The validated marriage readiness index offers a culturally adapted tool for early screening and preventive interventions. By integrating biopsychosocial dimensions, the index can strengthen premarital counseling programs such as Elsimil and Bimwin, which currently lack standardized psychological measures. Incorporating this index into routine premarital services could help identify couples at risk of marital instability and mental health problems, thereby supporting national priorities in family resilience and mental health promotion. At the global level, this approach aligns with SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being) and SDG 5 (gender equality), emphasizing the importance of gender-sensitive strategies in reproductive and family health. Evidence from Najmudin et al. (2025) shows that structured premarital counseling improves communication, emotional readiness, and marital stability, further supporting the integration of psychological screening into public health policy [26]. The biopsychosocial-based marriage readiness index developed in this study has the potential to become a strategic tool for preventive interventions and public health policy. This research contributes to academic literature by offering a conceptual framework and psychological indicators for measuring marriage readiness. With empirical validation, the index can strengthen community-based interventions and improve mental health literacy in marriage contexts in developing countries like Indonesia. Moreover, the findings can inform the development of training modules and evidence-based policies for youth and prospective couples.

Strength and limitation: the principal strength of this study lies in the development and validation of a culturally adapted marriage readiness index grounded in a biopsychosocial framework, supported by a robust sample size and rigorous statistical testing through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Nevertheless, the cross-sectional design limits causal inference, and the reliance on self-reported measures introduces potential recall and social desirability bias, particularly in sensitive psychological domains. Future research should employ longitudinal designs to capture changes in marriage readiness over time, expand sampling to diverse regions to enhance external validity, and integrate biological and social dimensions alongside psychological indicators to establish a more comprehensive biopsychosocial assessment. Such studies would strengthen the applicability of the index for national premarital programs and provide evidence to inform public health policy development.

Conclusion     

This study confirms that psychological readiness is a key determinant of marital quality and mental health. The eight validated psychological dimensions beliefs, role readiness, emotional maturity, problem-solving skills, moral readiness, self-esteem, interpersonal skills, and marital motives form a reliable basis for the marriage readiness index. Sex differences in emotional maturity and self-esteem highlight the need for sex-sensitive premarital interventions. The biopsychosocial-based marriage readiness Index developed in this study can serve as a preventive screening tool to strengthen premarital programs and guide evidence-based public health policies in Indonesia.

Competing interests     

The authors declare no competing interests.

Authors' contributions     

Conceptualization: Eka Yuni Indah Nurmala, Mahmudah Mahmudah, Arief Hargono. Data curation: An Nisa Fithri, Arti Wardani, Nurul Anjarwati. Formal analysis: Eka Yuni Indah Nurmala. Methodology: Mahmudah Mahmudah, Arief Hargono. Visualization: Arti Wardani, Nurul Anjarwati. Writing – original draft: Eka Yuni Indah Nurmala, Mahmudah Mahmudah, Arief Hargono. Writing – review and editing: Mahmudah Mahmudah, Arief Hargono, An Nisa Fithri. All the authors have read and approved the final version of this manuscript.

Acknowledgments     

We would like to acknowledge the Indonesian Education Scholarship (BPI), Center for Higher Education Funding and Assessment, Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology of the Republic Indonesia, and Indonesian Endowment Funds for Education (LPDP), Airlangga University, and Kendedes Health School.

Tables and figure     

Table 1: demographic characteristics of study participants, recruited from the prospective brides and grooms registered at four religious affairs offices in Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia, from May to July 2025 (N=280)

Table 2: frequency distribution of psychological dimension indicators among male and female respondents in the marriage readiness survey, recruited from the prospective brides and grooms registered at four religious affairs offices in Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia, from May to July 2025 (N=280)

Table 3. confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of psychological dimension, recruited from the prospective brides and grooms registered at four religious affairs offices in Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia, from May to July 2025 (N=280)

Figure 1: confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for psychological dimension indicators, recruited from the prospective brides and grooms registered at four religious affairs offices in Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia, from May to July 2025 (N=280)

References